UNIT 3- Compendium: MOVEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Overview of Skeletal System

2. Bone Growth

3. Types of Muscles

This unit is composed of the skeletal and muscular systems. Above is my table of contents which I will provide in more detail below. The first review is the Skeletal System, which is made up of bones clicking and moving together to allow us to perform the activities we are doing. In my A & P class last semester, we looked at different organs on the Cadaver, which was my first experience. It is absolutely amazing to see the skeletal shape of the body with the organs in place. Inside each of us is a skeleton! Around the bones lie muscles that help with movement and protection against other organs. Muscles have a detailed job which I will do my best to explain, the picture I provide is helpful to follow along with. Both of these systems go hand-in-hand to provide our body with the proper movement, support, and functioning it needs to maintain homeostasis.

OVERVIEW OF SKELETAL SYSTEM: The book lists 5 functions of the skeleton: "supports the body, protects soft body parts, produces blood cells, stores minerals and fat, and permits flexible body movement" (Mader 208). These functions basically keep us alive and functioning. Each of our skeleton shapes began development while we were still an embryo, at about 6 weeks. "The bones that make up your skeleton are all very much alive, growing and changing all the time" (kids health article). Next I will discuss the different materials that make up the long bone, shown on the picture to the right. A long bone has an outer fibrous tissue known as the periosteum. The vessels on this tissue, break open the tissue and enter the bone. Next layer is the compact bone, if looking at a skeleton this is the note able tissue you see. Spongy bone is known for giving strength and the little spaces are composed of red bone marrow. One of the functions I mentioned was producing blood cells, this tissue does just that. Most babies bones are made up of a soft and flexible layer called cartilage, and as the baby grows the cartilage is replaced by bone. Athletes typically either pull/strain a ligament(bone to bone) or tendon(muscle to bone), made from the fibrous connective tissue. Fibrous joints connect without any movement. Another joint is Cartilaginous, which is attached by cartilage (spine or ribs). The last joint is Synovial, which helps protect the bones and allows it to move freely; since the synovial fluid acts as a barrier. The picture to the right shows a 'ball-and-socket' joint. I used to work on the Orthopedic/Med-Surg floor at Scottsdale Health care, and saw many fractured/broken hips. These individuals needed the physical therapy to learn the healing procedure and hip precautions, to prevent hip dislocation. the synovial joint movements discussed in this section are: Flexion-Extension, Adduction(moving arm/leg toward midline)-Abduction(moving arm/leg away from the mid line), Rotation-Circumduction, and Inversion(moving sole in)-Eversion(moving sole out). As discussed above, the skeletal system has many parts to hold up a strong framework.

BONE, GROWTH: The 3 different cell types of bones are: 1. Osteoblasts "bone-forming cells, promote the deposition of calcium salts into the matrix" 2. Osteocytes: "maintain the structure of bone" and 3. Osteoclasts: "break down the bone ad assist in depositing calcium and phosphate in the blood" (Mader 210). I stated earlier that during fetal development bones are begining to form, this formation is known as ossification. The book describes many different types of bones, but I will focus more on movement and structure. At this point in our lives we already know the importance of Calcium in our diets. To help keep our bones strong, and brittle-free. The book states the importance of Vitamin D, in that it helps absorb calcium. PTH keeps the bone recycling, rising the level of blood calcium. By the age of 25 an individuals bones have stopped growing. An average adults has "206" bones in their skeleton form (kids health article). Keeping our bones healthy and strong will hopefully lead to a less chance of developing bone diseases such as, Osteoporosis.

TYPES OF MUSCLES. "Humans have 3 types of muscle tissue: smooth, cardiac and skeletal" (Mader 228). The picture to the right shows what each muscle tissue looks like. Smooth muscle is known to be involuntary. Examples of where this type is found is the esophagus, stomach, bladder, intestines, and bronchi. Cardiac muscle is also involuntary and this is only find surrounding the heart. Lastly, the Skeletal muscle is voluntary, moves on our commands: arms, shoulder, knee. Its functions are support, movement, regulating temperature, and works to keep blood flowing. "Muscle is mainly composed of muscle cells" (wikipedia). These muscle cells are also known as muscle fibers. Inside each of these fibers are numerous little myofibrils, the "contractile portion of the muscle fibers" (Mader 232). The picture to the right is a muscle fiber(#3) and inside are the myofibrils(#4). If you were to pull out one of the myofibrils(long cylinder shape) and look at it under a microscope, you would find many sarcomeres. The membrane of a muscle fiber is known as a sarcolemma, the cytoplasm is sarcoplasm, and the ER is sarcoplasmic reticulum. By following along with the picture below will help explain the following structures. Within the sacromere are two protein filaments: myosin(thick- green structure) and actin(thin-orange coiled structure). Myosin is the big producer in the break down of ATP to occur. The two protein filaments go through a zig-zag sliding process in order for ATP to supply the necessary energy. In order for a muscle fiber to contract, the axons of motor neurons need to be in the nerves. The green flaps on the myosin filament is the axon terminal which are filled with synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine-ACh(the axon terminal if flipped around resembles a shower head- the synaptic vesicles would be where the water squirts out). The gap from the axon terminal and the sarcolemma is known as the neuromuscular junction. When an impulse travels down the muscle fiber and reaches the axon terminal, it releases the ACh which binds to the sarcolemma. Calcium is also released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which aids in muscle contraction. The next two proteins to discuss are part of the actin filament(orange coiled structure): Tropomyosin(pink thread wrapped around the actin) and Troponin(blue clumps scattered across the actin). Once Calcium is released, myosin and actin are capable of binding.

Muscle Contraction: This is also known as a muscle twitch, it occurs when a muscle fibers lengthens or shortens. The book describes 3 different stages: latent, contraction, and relaxation periods. A motor unit is known as nerve and muscle fibers. I briefly described the process of the release of Calcium ions above and it relates again to the muscle contractions. When calcium exits the sarcoplasmic reticulum it contracts, and when calcium enters the fiber it relaxes. Interesting fact the book states is that a muscle has 4 energy sources: muscle triglycerides, plasma fatty acids, blood glucose, and muscle glycogen. "ATP is the immediate source of energy for muscle contractions" (wikipedia). The 3 ways the a muscle fiber collects the energy is through creatine phosphate, fermentation, and cellular respiration. To me these are a bit difficult to try and describe, so I will leave this information as mentioned above. We all get the annoying muscle spasms, for instance while swimming laps, cramps while jogging, the occasional eye twitching, or a sprained ankle. These are a few of the common muscle disorders we probably all experienced. Each movement between our muscles and bones is important for proper functioning as well as maintaining homeostasis.

In conclusion this review was a brief summary of the important structures of the skeletal system and the muscular system. Both systems work together to help our bodies move on command. The framework of a skeletal system has important functions for: support, protection, produce blood cells, store minerals and fats, and allow for movement. The 3 joints I discussed were fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial. I also briefly touched on the importance of Calcium in our diet, to keep a strong and healthy bone structure. Muscle fibers work hard at making sure the body is able to perform muscle contractions by allowing the nerve impulses to travel its course. ATP is an important source of energy that is released, allowing the muscle to contract. I know I always say how amazing our body is, but I truly find it to be. Inside our body there is a strong skeletal structure with muscle surrounding to help with movement and protects all of our organs. Some movements are voluntary while others are not, regardless our strong body will fight to help maintain homeostasis.

WORKS CITED:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/skeletal_system muscle and muscle fibers

picture of skeleton, muscle tissues, muscle fiber, and quotes

http://www.embl-heidelberg.de/cellBiophys/localprobes/motorproteins/myosin.html

picture of mysoin and actin

http://www.kidshealth.org/kid/body/bones_sw.html

quotes

http://www/shockfamily.net/skeleton/

picture of hip 'ball-and-socket

UNIT 3- LEECH LAB

Leech Neurophysiology Lab

This lab involved the dissection of a leech and then observing the nervous system under the microscope. It was interesting to start out with a leech on a tray, following the commands to dissect it, and then observing the cell under the microscope. I have had numerous encounters of these nasty, slimy worms stuck to me when I was little! Yuck! Below I will answer questions relating to the lab section. Hopefully by looking at the pictures you will have a general idea of the lab process it to look at the neurons of a leech under a microscope.





This picture shows the manipulator screen with the oscillope trace findings (purple boxes). It shows the chemical and physical parts of the neuron. Leeches consist of a brain, ganglia, and nerve cord. Looking at different cells by using the feather, probe and forceps to help move the tissue around to get a better view of the neuron cell and to check the response.








This picture shows using the dye injection and the ultra violet light to better visualize the neuron. Once the image was on the screen, it asked to identify the cell. To the right of the picture is a list of different cell types and the tools (feather, probe, forceps) used to get the image of the neuron. This particular cell is a dyed N cell used with forceps.


1. What is the electrode measuring? Electrodes record the activities that occur within the neuron. A good example of this is during defibulation. The electrodes placed on the individual sends an electrical shock to the heart, in hopes that it will beat again.

2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments? Leeches have large neurons which makes it easier to experiment with. The background information in this lab also states that leeches have about 175 pairs of neurons.


3. What is the difference between sensory and motor neurons? Sensory neurons have nerve cells that relay external information to the CNS. This all depends on the organism. Motor Neuron are neurons found in the CNS with axons on the outside, giving control to muscles.

4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain? I would think leeches would feel pain. Everyone has a different pain tolerance and opinion of what pain is. To me pain is an injury that has an unbearable sensation(sharp, excruciating, throbbing).

5. What were the 2 most interesting things about doing this lab? Just being able to view a whole leech, using the tools to dissect, and observing the neuron under the microscope was quite interesting. It was also neat that it provided extra information and history on leeches as we clicked around trying to find a cell.

6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about this lab? Trying to explain the pictures of what I did with the lab was hard. It's one of those things that you have to actually go through the process to know what it is I am talking about.


In conclusion this lab shows that inside of a slimy, disgusting leech are numerous neurons. Although it is hard to see the process of the lab, it mainly consisted of dissecting the leech, finding a cell, trying different tools to move back the tissue, using an ultra-violet light and a dye to get the finished product: a leech neuron. A leech consists of a brain, ganglia, and nerve cord which makes them an interesting lab animal to experiment on. Leeches are now being used for numerous medical reasons. A leech bite is used as an anticoagulant and vasodialtor, which comes from its saliva. This lab was able to show the amazing view of a neuron, found in a leech.

UNIT 3: Compendium Review: Nervous Function

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Overview of Nervous System: CNS and PNS

2. Action and Resting Potentials: passage of nerve impulses

3. Reflex Arch: Somatic and Autonomic System

4. Senses

Below I will discuss the importance of the Nervous system and how it ties in with our senses. Above I made a brief table of contents of what I will discuss. As we go about our daily lives, our bodies work hard to keep up with our actions. How exactly are we capable of doing what we do? The 2 parts of the Nervous System I am about to discuss will explain the messages our brains interpret and send to our systems. Each of our senses depend on the sensory receptors it contacts. Hopefully my explanation of the Nervous System and Senses will give you a better understanding of how nerve impulses are transmitted and interpreted.

Overview of Nervous System: CNS and PNS. This system is composed of two major systems: Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System(PNS). Giggling at a joke, whispering a secret, smelling the fresh rain, stubbing your toe, dipping into the swimming pool; are all actions occurring in our brain. The brain and spinal cord are part of the CNS; which functions as a control center for our body. While the nerves make up the PNS; which is like a mail carrier, in that they send messages from the brain to the body. "Neurons are the cells that transmit nerve impulses between parts of the nervous system" (Mader 248). The picture to the right is a neuron. Which is composed of 3 different parts. The finger like projections are dendrites(receive information from the environment), the center dot is the cell body(keeps the cell functioning), and the snakelike extension is the axon(takes information away from the cell). Together these structures work to carry nerve impulses either towards the cell body or away from the cell body. There are also 3 different types of neurons in the body: sensory(skin, eyes, nose), inter neurons, and motor(muscles and glands). Wrapped around most axons is a covering known as a mylein sheath. It serves as a protective wrap and as a "nerve regenerat[or] within the PNS" (Mader 249). Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a disorder that occurs when the mylein sheath becomes injured, which interrupts the nerve impulse flow. I work with a few residents who have this disorder, so its interesting to get more familiar with it. The body is unable to repair any neurons or mylein. A few disabilities in the residents I work with are: loss of muscle strength and control in arms and legs, decrease sensation, and difficulties talking. The cause of this disease is unknown, but the book relates how the immune system may be a factor. "Neurons are the oldest and longest cells in the body" (Faculty article). The packed information of nerve impulses jump across the gap to pass on the information to yet another neuron.

RESTING AND ACTION POTENTIALS: The transportation of nerve impulses can be related to that of a communication network. Resting Potential refers to the axon resting and not sending an impulse. The voltmeter reading at rest is about "-65mV(milivolts), indicating that the inside of the neuron is more negative than the outside " (Mader 250). Note the picture to the right, which shows the molecule action during resting phase. Potassium, since it has a solid line, easily passes through the neuron membrane during resting potential. While the other molecules Chloride and Sodium, have more difficulties. Inside the neuron is like a matching game; for every 3 sodium molecules that exit, the neuron wants 2 potassium molecules to stay inside. Once the match is settled and the molecules are in place, the volts are measure: known as resting potential. Action Potential is known for its speedy impulse of sending information down an axon (as mentioned above, it moves away from the cell body). Since inside of the neuron is negative and the outside is more positive; during action potential the positive charged Sodium molecules are attracted to the inside neuron, which opens up the sodium channels. Once the neuron becomes more positively charged, depolarization occurs. But when the Potassium channels open (negative charged ion) and settle outside of the cell, repolarization occurs. Note the picture to the right, it shows that the sodium and potassium channels opening and closing as the molecules hustle to enter and exit the neuron. After the busy running around, the molecules settle back to where they started, resting.


Information from one neuron flows through to another neuron by crossing a synapse. This transportation is from the many molecules known as neurotransmitters, which make up a synapse. Neurostransmitters are, "stored in synaptic vesicles in the axon terminals" (Mader 252). The synpatic cleft "separates the sending neuron from the receiving neuron" (Mader 252). Neurotransmitters "diffuse across the synaptic cleft where they can bind with receptor sites [..] to influence an electrical response" (Washington article). Similar to a sticky spiders web, some bugs make a lot of movement once attached (start an action potential: sending the message) while some bugs are less active while stuck on the webb. In today's field of medicine, there are many drugs that can affect the release of the neurotransmitters. A few common molecules we are aware of are norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. These neurotransmitters have different functions, such as, moods, temperature regulation, and emotions. The common anti depressant Prozac "blocks the removal of serotonin from a synapse" (Mader 253). Synapses send signals to relay a message throughout the body to cells, mostly to muscles and glands.


REFLEX ARCH: SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC SYSTEM. To start this section, the purpose of describing the reflex arch first is because it is an automatic response to protect against danger. We have all experienced this reflex numerous times. When you grab the hot plate out of the microwave your first action is to quickly pull your hand away (hence dropping the plate). This quick action is actually going through many processes throughout your body. The first impulse is that of the sensory receptors which quickly sends nerve impulses to the "sensory fibers through the dorsal-root ganglia toward the spinal cord" (Mader 263). It then passes on to interneurons, which travel to a synapse connecting with a motor neuron found within the spinal cord. Once with the motor neuron, the impulse attaches to an effector, which causes your physical action. This whole processes is sent to the brain, which reads the information it receives and then sends an action. The Somatic System is part of the PNS, the voluntary body movement. These nerves consist of: skin, skeletal muscles, and tendons. Autonomic system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic division. The ANS "controls homeostatic maintenance of the body's internal state" (Wikipedia). A few examples of these heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and perspiration. Imagine being pinned under a car, the Sympathetic Nervous System, would quickly fall into this category. During this emergency your body would quickly speed up its control mechanisms. Your heart rate would increase, allows more oxygen flow, increases blood flow to skeletal muscles, and dilates pupils. Many people know this system as the "Fight or Flight" response. The Parasympathetic Nervous System is more of the relaxation phase. This phase includes: relaxed heart rate, constricts the bronchioles since the demand for oxygen is low, pupils constrict, and the digestive system is moving. The picture of the brain to the right just shows how amazing this structure is. All the information it collects and reads, is then interpreted and sent out binding to receptors and performing an action!

To begin, sensory receptors are: " dendrites specialized to detect certain types of stimuli" (Mader 274). The book describes two different types of sensory receptors: exteroreceptors (taste, smell, see, hear, and equilibrium) and interoceptors (blood pressure changes, water/salt balances, and blood pH). There are also 4 categories of sensory receptors: Chemoreceptors(taste and smell), Pain receptors (watch/notify us of danger), Photorecpetors(vision), Mechanoreceptors(hearing: yelling, music), and Thermoreceptors (temperature regulator). The process of sensation was described when I discussed the reflex arch. The sensory receptors related to the spinal cord impulses are: Proprioceptors (muscle tone), Cutaneous Receptors (skin sensitivity ), and Pain Receptors(damaged tissues).

Touch: The skin goes through the process of either a startle reflex with pain or a regular sensation. Below is a picture of the different layers of the skin.


Taste: The book states that humans have about "3,000 taste buds" (Mader 278). The tiny bumps on your tongue are surrounded by taste buds. There are 4 well known tastes we acquire: sweet, sour, salt, and bitter. I really do appreciate the fact that I can taste the difference between foods, because as you age, unfortunately, we loose our sense of taste.


Smell: Interestingly enough, "80-90% of what we perceive as taste actually is due to the sense of smell" (Mader 279). An article states because of this some argue that, "Taste and Smell should likewise be grouped together as one Sense" (wikipedia). The olfactory neurons in the nose provide us with odors. To the right is a picture of the nose, which shows the path of smell, and the top part shows the olfactory nerve.


Vision: The eyes have many different parts, as you can tell by the picture below. We see objects due to the light projecting on the retina. This could be a complex topic, but the main purpose is how we see and even before impulses reach the brain. This sense is anothermany of us take for granted. Not everyone has been blessed with the ability to see the world.

Hear: There are also many parts within the ear, as shown in the picture below. The pathway of hearing occurs when "sound waves enter the auditory canal" (Mader 287). Individuals hear different sounds at different pitches and tones. Some can't hear high squeaky voices, whiles others have difficulties with low tones.

While watching the 4th of July fireworks, I definitely experienced all the senses. Sitting on the grass, I touched the smooth grass blades between my fingers. Each Mike n Ike I plopped in my mouth was tasteful. Just enjoying the outside air was refreshing, as the evening cooled off. As the lights dimmed to God Bless America; the array of colors lite the evening sky and the bang of each firework sounded above.

In conclusion, the nervous system is composed of two main systems: Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) and Peripheral Nervous System(nerves). Neurons are packed with information, sending nerve impulses to different parts of the nervous system. The cell body, dendrites, and axons make up the parts of a neuron. Each part works together to interpret the nerve impulses: resting or action potential. I also discussed Somatic as being a voluntary body movement. We experience different reflexes, depending on the situation. Cutting your finger sends sensory receptors on a journey, which eventually reaches the brain. The end reaction is from the brains interpretation. The 5 senses were also briefly touched: touch, taste, smell, hear, and vision. Our world is full of senses that we tend to take for granted. The nervous system constantly sends nerve impulses throughout the system and relaying the messages to our brains to make an action possible.

Works Cited:

http://emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK
picture of brain and neuron
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/somatic_nervous_system and sensesquotes
http://faculty.washington.edu/
picture of potentials and quote
http://freda.quyeung.net/5senses/
pictures of 5 senses
Mader, Sylvia S. Human Biology. Boston: McGrawHill Companies, Inc. 2008.

UNIT II- Self and Unit Evaluation

SELF AND UNIT EVALUATION

1. What are the 3 aspects of the assignment I've submitted that I am most proud of? I enjoyed this unit because for some reason it is a bit easier to understand. I would have to say that my Exercise lab is my strongest work. I seriously had a fun time looking back at the cardiovascular system and interpreting it into why each of my metabolic rates increased. The other two would be the compendium reviews. I also took the time to research and find different quotes to add to my reviews. Basically everything I do I should be proud of because these assignments are time consuming and take a lot of effort.

2. What 2 aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? It's hard to say because for each assignment I try and follow the requirements to complete each one thoroughly.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? Since this is the second review and I understand what to expect from your grading. I would have to say, once again, with all the hours, thinking, activities, and concentration it takes to complete these units, I would hope to get an A.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit? I think the last evaluation I said time management, which again I would have to admit is my down fall. Working and another summer class, takes A LOT of my time each day. Some days I feel I need a break, but its not always a good idea!!

Unit Questions

1. At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? I have mentioned this several times, but it would have to be the Exercise Lab. Integrating the unit review into the exercises was interesting and fun.

2. At what moment did you feel most distanced from the course? For some reason I have to get used to the on line lab functions, before I plug in information.

3. What action did anyone take during this unit that you found most affirming and helpful? The emails you send are encouraging and good reminders to keep going! Knowing you are willing to help is reassuring. All of the guidelines are still helpful to look back on, to see that I included everything.

4. What action that anyone(teacher of student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? There wasn't anything.

5. What about this unit surprised you the most? Working on the compendium reviews and then working on labs turned out to be FUN! Also being able to feel confident in all the work I submitted!!

UNIT II- Exercise Physiology LAB

Exercise, Exercise, Exercise- unit II-Lab

This Lab project was based on measuring metabolic rates of pulse, respiration, and systolic/diastolic BP. Not only do our bodies work hard at rest, but when you add a cardiovascular workout on top of it; double time steps in! Beginning this lab, I measured my rates at rest 5 different times, calculated each mean, and then performed 3 activities/3 reps each: step aerobics, vacuuming, and swimming. During exercise, the cardiovascular system works hard to increase the blood flow due to the high demand of energy. Having some knowledge about the cardiovascular system, it only makes sense to conclude that during each activity; the pulse, respiration and BPs would have a slight increase in their measurements (depending on the exertion of the exercise). One of the important cells in the cardiovascular system is the RBC, in that it carries oxygen, which diffuse into tissues. I will quickly review what the numbers of systolic and diastolic pressure are. While using the blood pressure cuff to measure my blood pressure; the first notable beat, after pumping it up, is the systolic measurement (contraction of the heart) and the last beat is the diastolic measurement(relaxation of the heart). I hope by reading through this lab, you will have an understanding of what happens to your metabolic measurements during exercise and what causes the changes.

Before starting this lab, I wrote down an 'educated guess' for each activity, what I thought my metabolic measurements would be. Since I perform these activities, I felt comfortable formulating a hypothesis for each metabolic rate, stating that my pulse, respiration's, and BP would increase. Knowing that swimming is more physical exertion, I guessed my measurements would increase more than step aerobics and vacuuming. The table to the right are my formulated guesses. As mentioned above, our bodies supply oxygen and blood to the heart during the high energy demand while exercising. With my activities, my hypothesis and the outcomes were fairly accurate.

Materials and Methods. An average resting heart rate is between 60-100 bpm. "The heart rate adapts to changes in the body's need for oxygen" (American heart article). An example of this would be during the exercises I performed. There are several places to get a pulse measurement a few places are :carotid, femoral, brachial, popliteal(behind the knee), and radial. I used my radial pulse, which is shown in the picture to the right (the sticker is where I placed my fingers). For each activity my heart rate increased, more after each rep, due to the heart pumping faster, in need of more oxygen. During these activities the throbbing sensation while exercising is the arteries responding to the heart beat, which is carrying blood away from the heart. The second measurement were my respiration's, which is counting each full breath in and out. (I did not take a picture, because you wouldn't be able to see it anyway). An average RR(respiratory rate) for an adult is 12-20, depending on the individual. During an inhalation, we breath in oxygen from the environment which contains "20% oxygen," which mixes with the oxygen in our alveloi containing "14% oxygen" (respiration, article). The main function of respiration is to quickly send oxygen to our blood and in return quickly removing carbon dioxide. This happens with an individual who has a healthy set of lungs. Working in the health care field, I have seen many individuals that can't perform this cycle without gasping for air. Some individuals have difficulties breathing while trying to talk, changing positions, or even eating. This most commonly occurs with Emphysema and individuals with congestive heart failure. Instead of having thin, small alevoli for exchange; these individuals are living with larger surface areas and alveloi. Making them short of breath with minimal exertion. During a deep inhale and exhale the body can take in and remove about "5.5 Liters of air" (respiration). Again with each rep on my activities, my respiration's increased. The more physical and strength I put in the more work my heart pumped to supply my blood flow. The third metabolic measurement was my blood pressure(systolic and diastolic). "Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries" (wikipedia). An average BP reading for adults is 120/80 or lower. The picture below and to the right shows where I placed my blood pressure cuff and my stethoscope( As you can see I took it myself so it was a bit tricky). I felt for my brachial pulse, placed my stethoscope on that area and pumped to about 180. I also put a picture of my stethoscope and blood pressure cuff below.

Increased physical activity causes an increase in pressure in the body, this forces the heart to supply oxygen rich blood to the main chambers of the heart(aorta, ventricle). This blood then branches to arteries, then arterioles. The smallest branching is known as the capillaries(where the pressure of blood decreases) supplying the body with refreshing oxygen/nutrients. While swimming my laps the faster my strokes became, the more blood was pumping through, increasing my blood pressure. These measurements will be found in the table below. Once the oxygen is delivered to the tissues in the body, deoxygenated blood starts the journey pumping back to the heart(which is found in the capillaries). Similar to the branching of the arteries; the capillaries branch into veins, venules, and the superior/inferior vena cavas. Measurements of blood pressure can vary depending on each individual, activity, temperature, posture, diet, history, and medications. Again, this lab shows that with the activities I picked, my measurements increased.



This picture shows the step aerobic exercise I did (50/rep). For this activity, my metabolic guess was fairly accurate. For each metabolic measurement my rates increased. My pulse was the highest change. I started at 72bpm and at my last rep it was 104. Below you will see the graph mean for this activity.



This picture is to show my second activity, I was vacuuming. It was more than this little area. (which is now neatly cleaned after 3 times)!



This obviously shows my third activity, swimming. I did 6 laps for each rep(before all the kids came and ruined my peace fullness :) )

Data.








The table above shows the metabolic rates of each activity I performed 3 times and the right column is the mean measurements for: pulse, respiration, and systolic/diastolic BP. At the bottom(read area) is actually already mentioned above, its my hypothesis results. The bar graph to the right is the mean results for each activity. For each activity the mean measurements were accurate and what I expected.

Analysis of data. Activity One(step aerobics) hypothesis was correct. My guesses were: 84-20-125-70. The mean results were: 88-21-124-70. According to the data I collected, this is what I was expecting. My pulse ranged, but that could have been depending on the pace I did for each rep. Activity Two (vacuuming) hypothesis was not correct, it was a little off. My guesses were: 72-16-116-70. The mean results were: 88-21-118-70. Again, my pulse was more than what I though it would be. Also my hypothesis respiration's were lower than the mean average. I guess vacuuming is more work that I expected it to be. But the BP were fairly close. Activity Three (swimming) hypothesis were somewhat correct and close. My guesses were: 120-24-130-75. The mean results were: 120-23-127-73. Now that I am looking back, I would think that my BP would be more. I retook my 3rd systolic pressure twice, and got 120; which was surprising. By my third rep I could have slowed down, possibly making it lower. My hypotheses on all three activities were fairly correct when comparing them to my mean averages. Our bodies continue working with each activity we participate in, most likely increasing each metabolic measurement.

Problems with your data or technique. There are a couple things that could change the measurements. As I mentioned above, moving at the same exact pace for each activity wasn't the case, which could change the numbers slightly. Another point I would like to make is, which measurement to take first. By the time I got my pulse and respiration's done, and adjusted my BP cuff my measurements may have went down a little. Regardless I feel that my results are correct, and I did not have any technical difficulties to bother with. Above I reviewed my hypotheses and mean results, and even though some are a little off I still think that they are fairly accurate or correct.

In conclusion I would like to say this lab was interesting and fun. Doing all these activities and then thinking about why my metabolic rates changed is fascinating. It's something I don't typical stop to think about! Starting the lab, I already had the feeling that each metabolic measurement: pulse, respiration, and BP would slightly increase depending on my activities. The more exertion I gave, the higher my results were. But, if we were able to look inside of our bodies it would all make sense. Our baby alveloi branching off of our lungs are tiny, but they quickly take in oxygen and remove the unwanted carbon dioxide. This in turn, keeps our respiratory cycle functioning. When there is more physical activity, our heart pumps faster causing our arteries to fill up and send blood to the heart. Oxygen and nutrients are delivered while carbon dioxide and wastes are removed. The cardiovascular system can be complex, but knowing that our heart is aware of the increase in activity; it continues to pump faster to supply blood to carry oxygen and nutrients to cells and tissues. During these exercise, I could feel the beating sensation of my heart; knowing it pumps harder to supply oxygen to the muscles is amazing. Our heart truly is a loving structure.


Works Cited:
http://www.puchon.com/biology/respire.htm#ventricle
quote
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/blood_pressure
quote
www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml
quote

UNIT TWO: Ethical Essay

A SCRUMPTIOUS MEAL-Ethical Essay

What would taste better to you: A home cooked pot of simmering stew, or frozen stew from a bag heating above the stove? We all have different opinions and experiences, but in my opinion I would rather peel and cut the vegetables than tear open a bag and plop the stew in water. The food industry is becoming more popular with developing "homemade" meals into a meal quick and easy. Nutrition is an important part of our lives, and learning which foods are essential and where you can find them, would be beneficial to know. A few major points to discuss in this essay would be: where does our produce come from, the abundance of processed/packaged foods, and healthy versus "empty calorie" diets. Are individuals paying attention to what they are eating? Our bodies need the nourishment to stay healthy, but many food markets supply many unneeded produce that consumers continuously buy.

While biting into your sweet, juicy apple; does it ever cross your mind where the apple came from? "Food travels on average 1,300 miles from farm to table" (food travels, article). This type of produce(fruits and vegetables) is from local farmers; mainly from California, Florida or Washington. Another interesting fact is, most produce that is shipped from around the states or different countries could take up to "7-14" days before it gets to the supermarket. This makes it difficult to find the freshest bach of produce at some local supermarkets. A lot of times fruits and vegetables are expensive, and not everyone can afford spending money on fresh products. But, in my opinion, I feel that fresh products are healthier than packaged/processed. In my opinion cans of fruits/veggies are packed with sugar giving it a total different taste. Some produce hold the same vitamin contents of fresh produce, but I personally don't know how when its packed with processed ingredients. In this same article it states that the: "U. S. has lost 4.7 million farms" since 1935(food travels). This cut off may explain why food marketing has such an increase in packaged foods; since the farmers aren't there to supply their need of produce. Regardless, I still buy fresh products over processed. If I had the land, I would love to plant my own fruit trees and garden. But for those of us that don't have that, think about the apple(or fresh food) you bit into; somewhere a farmer planted the tree, helped it grow, and picked it off the tree for you to ENJOY!

Walking through the aisles of the supermarket, every few feet a blazing sign saying "NEW TRY ME," stands out amongst all the other processed foods. One thing I find amazing is that frozen dinners have become a popular meal of choice. I enjoy cooking and baking, therefore, I tend not to buy these pre-made meals, but occasionally I do. Most of them are loaded with sodium, fats, and calories, but they are tasteful. An article describes the harm in processed foods; "contains huge amounts of chemicals and toxins which were added in the processing" (health, article). Companies try making the food taste fresh by adding colorings, artificial flavors and preservatives. These preservatives are used to make the food last longer to avoid it being disrupted from mold, bacteria, or yeast. Freezing, Canning, Sterilization, Adding sugar and salts are examples of preserving food. This website also states that the reason some vegetables taste bland is due to the fact they lack minerals; chemicals are mixed into it to give it a flavorful taste. "Processing takes a lot of nutrients out of the nutrient rich foods" (health, article). This states a lot of the packaged foods we open and plop into the microwave or stove top. Many of these products are stripped from the original nutrients, giving the buyer a mouthful of processed material. It would be expensive to buy all organic instead of some of the processed foods. I feel it is important to get a variety of fresh produce, but eating preserved/packaged foods is part of our society.

Lack of time is very common in today's society. Therefore many Americans grab "empty calorie" foods for a meal. These calories can be from candy, soda, beer, to a fast food hamburger. The reason these "empty calories" are important to watch is they are eventually converted to fat. Which leads to a common disorder, Obesity. Most of these foods lack the essential vitamins, minerals, and nutrients our body needs to function properly. These foods tend to be cheaper, readily available, and tasteful which is why many individuals aim for them. I will agree that many of the healthier foods are more expensive, making it harder to keep them as a daily diet regimen. Nutrient density foods may contain the same amount of calories, but they are filled with vitamins and minerals. A good example we are all probably aware of is a potato vs chips. They may be similar in calories, but the baked potato has fiber, calcium and other vitamins far more valuable. Learning the foods that are priced the same as junk food, will hopefully keep individuals away from the empty calories vs nutrient filled foods. We hear the comments about eating healthier over and over, but unhealthy diets seems to be getting more common. Constant consumption of junk food( "empty calories") may put an individuals health at risk for cardiovascular and other diseases.

In conclusion, it seems to be that our society is lacking in trying to keep our bodies healthy and full on vitamins and minerals we need to nourish our bodies. Many of the produce products we get in the supermarkets are shipped from other areas throughout the states or even country. We know many of them need to be preserved in order to last the long trip to the market. Again, I personally enjoy fresh produce versus packaged foods. Home cooked meals in most families have lost its meaning, since many place a frozen lasagna into the oven or dine at restaurants. For many individuals the cost of healthy foods is more expensive than the "empty calorie" foods; therefore many pick the packaged versus more nourishment. We are all at guilty of eating at fast food restaurants, but in my opinion doing that on a daily basis is not healthy for your body. Depending on what foods you consume, but for the most part french fries and hamburgers are not good for the arteries day after day. Many diseases can arise from lack of nourishment and the constant consumption of carbohydrates, fats, and sugars. Learning to recognize the harm some foods can do to your body, will hopefully make some individuals stop and think before they bite into their hamburger for the 5th time that week.

Works Cited:

http://www.mcvitamins.com/Health%20opponents/processed_foods.htm

quotes

http://www.ediblecommunities.com/

picture of tractor

http://www.foodroutes.org/

quotes, beginning quote

http://www.wegmans.com/

picture of apple

UNIT TWO: Nutrition Lab

To keep our bodies working to give us the strength and energy; it is important to feed our bodies. This lab was basically inputting what we ate throughout the course of a day, as the picture above shows. The end results are not accurate because it didn't ask for specific amounts, and I was unable to dictate the amount consumed and not everything was on the list. Some of the food I ate and entered are not the exact same product, but similar. At the end, it gives a table of the nutrient totals. Below I will discuss what I ate for the day and the total amounts for the nutrients

Breakfast: 1 slice of sourdough bread toasted with 2 TBLS of Peanut butter, 1 cup of coffee with a tsp of fat free vanilla creamer, 8 oz of water, and 8 0z of fat-free milk.
Snack: Nutri-grain bar(honey oat) 1 bottle of Gatorade
Lunch: Salad with fresh vegetables: 1/4cup of cucumbers and green peppers, tomatoes, sunflower seeds, and ranch dressing. Rye crisp with colby cheese. 16 oz of water
Snack: Green grapes- tostido chips/cheese dip. Water
Dinner: Chicken and cheese quesadila with 1 tsp of sour cream. 8 oz of water. Fresh fruit: honeydew, watermelon, and strawberries.
Snack: Chocolate Ice cream and strawberries
I drink a lot of water throughout the day!!!! And thankfully, lately I have had cravings for fresh fruit!!!!

The Table states that the total Calories: 1010, Fat:44g, Sat. fat:20, Cholesterol:110mg, Sodium:1970mg, Carbohydrate: 105g, Dietary Fiber 10g, Sugars: 36g, Protein: 52g. The Vitamin totals: Vitamin A: 160%, Vit. C: 80%, Calcium: 110%, and Iron 35% Like I mentioned before these totals could be more or less. I'm not sure that with what I gave, my total fats could equal 64! I didn't eat a whole chicken or pound of cheese in my quesadila!

1. How healthy of a diet do you think this is? I am pregnant so I have tried my best to improve my diet. For the most part I feel I have a healthy diet. Although the pictures on the lab show that I am a carbohydrate friendly, well-balanced, vegitarian. It also shows a picture of a vegan, but I do eat meats. We basically grill a lot of steaks, hamburgers and pork chops.

2. What would you change about this day's eating. If anything? I basically eat this on a routine basis. Some days more veggies or dairy products(yogurt, string cheese). Even though I think I drink a lot of water, I still could probably drink more. And focus on a healthy meat for dinner.

3. Do you find this kind of tracking helpful? Its helpful to a point, but I wouldn't keep checking my nutrition status with this set up. It doesn't give accurate amounts and not everything is listed. Looking at the values I didn't realize with the vitamins: amounts of fruits and veggies that I exceeded the percentage. (that's a good thing). But then again, it may not be accurate.

In conclusion, this lab helped reassure me the importance of maintaining a healthy "food pyramid" diet. Our bodies need the food to stay energized, maintain function, metabolism, and growth. Our bodies can not do this without our physical job of supplying the bodies daily requirements. The food I entered in the beginning is a usual diet I try and stick to; not only for me but for my baby. I don't feel it is necessary to 'eat for two' as long as I am able to eat a well-balanced meal. Nutrition is important, and I like to think I am eating well to support my points.